POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF
THE CHOLAS
The Chola
power started emerging in South India from around 8th century A.D.
Vijayala (846-871) established his rule in the Tamil land with Tanjore as his
capital in about A.D. 846. He is regarded as the founder of imperial Cholas.
His grandson Parantaka I (A.D. 907-955) established kings of Madurai and
extended his territory further south. He took the title of Madurakiondavan –
the conqueror of Madurai.
Rajaraja I (A.D. 985-1016): with the accession of
Rajaraja I, the Chola empire withessed a glorious period in its history. He
extended his empire both in the North and in the South. He defeated the
Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Vengis. He took some
territories of Mysore, Travancore, Coorg and Sri Lanka as well. He built a
powerful navy and controlled many islands of the sea like the Lakshadweep and
Maldives. Under him, the Cholas became a paramount power in the South.
Rajaraja I was a great builder. He constructed the beautiful
Brihadesvara Temple of Shiva at Tanjore. On the walls of this temple are
inscribed the chief exploites of Rajaraja I.
Trade flourished in many islands. The coasts of
Kerala, Maldives and Sri Lanka became rich. Textiles, spices and precious
stones were exported to West Asia. Arab merchants dealt in trade. Some of them
settled in the Chola empire.
Rajendra Chola (A.D. 1016- 1044): Rajendra succeeded
his father Rajaraja I and carried on the aggressive policy. He conquered the
whole of Sri Lanka. It was made a province of Chola empire and named Mummadi
Cholamandalam. He then overran the Chalukyas of Vengi. He carried his arms
right up to Central India and made the ruler of Gondwana acknowledge his
supremacy. He then overran the whole of Orissa and Bengal right up to the
southern banks of the Ganga. In memory of this exploit, he took the title of
Gangaikonda. He then annexed the islands of Lakshadweep and Maladweep. He also
humbled the Sri Vijaya kingdom which included the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.
The Shailendra kings later built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam. Rajendra
I, on his part, endowed the income of the village for its upkeep. The naval
supremacy helped him to build a vast maritime empire to control trade and
commerce. With this vast expansion in territories, trade flourished to a great
extent. Indian ships began to sail through the Straits of Malacca. This
increased the revenue of the Chola kingdom. He built a new capital, known as
Gangaikonda Cholapuram near the mouth of the river Kaveri. He built magnificent
palaces and beautiful temples there. He also conquered Java and some other
eastern islands. The emissaries were also sent to China.
The successor of Rajendra I continued the war-like
policy but gradually they became weak. There were revolts in various quarters
and many independent states were set up. In A.D. 1267, the Pandya ruler
Jalavarman Sundara defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra II, and annexed a
great part of his kingdom. The Hoysalas of the Dvarasamudra (Mysore) also
annexed a part of Chola kingdom.
Causes of
conflict between the Chola and the Kingdom of Sri Vijaya: The Cholas,
especially their ruler Rajendra Chola, had to fight against the kingdom of Sri
Vijaya, which comprised the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, due to various causes.
The Indian merchants earned a lot of money because of their trade with the
South-East Asian countries and China. Their ships passed through the Straits of
Malacca which was held by the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. When this kingdom tried to
create difficulties for the Indian merchants, the Chola kings had to
intervence. In addition, most of these merchants belonged to the Chola kingdom
and naturally the Chola rulers had to take their side. The Chola rulers also
earned a lot of revenue from this trade; so for economic reasons, too, the
Chola rulers had to intervene. The Chola rulers possessed a strong navy; so
they readily sent a naval expendition against the kingdom of Sri Vijaya and
defeated his forces.
THE CHOLA GOVERNMENT (OR ADMINISTRATION) AND ITS CHIEF
FEATURES
The system of the Chola Administration was highly
organized and efficient. The king was the head of the Central Government. He
was all powerful but he acted upon the advice of his Council of ministers in
government affairs. His chief duty was to look after the welfare of the people.
He personally went on tours. The government business was carried on by the
assemblies, elected by the people. There were four very important assemblies.
The Chola rulers also organized their Provincial
Governments on sound footing. They divided their empire into six provinces
called Mandalams. Each Mandalam was divided into a number of Valanadus or
districts. Each Valanadu contained a certain number of villages. The village
was the smallest unit of the Chola administration which was governed by a
Sabha. Each Mandalam was put under the charge of a governor.
The Village Administration of the Chola was also
appreciable. The villages were the main centres of administrative and cultural
life in South India. The administration in the villages was carried on by the
village assemblies which were of three types and worked like local
self-governments. The three types of village assemblies were Ur, Sabha or
Mahasabha and the Nagram. The Ur was the assembly of common villagers and the
Sabha of learned Brahamins. The Nagram was the assembly of traders, merchants
and artisans. The landloeds of the upper cates were chosen by lots, to the
Sabhas. These village councils enjoyed great powers in the field of justice
also.
The Cholas had a powerful army of foot-soldiers,
archers, horsemen, elephant corps and a naval fleet. Navy was the most powerful
wing of the army which was used for keeping control over the islands and for
maintaining commercial relations with distant lands over the sea. The
Uttaramerur temple inscription throws a great deal of light on Chola village
administration.
SOCIETY
The Brahmanas and the merchants were the most
respectable sections of the Chola society. The traders and artisans enjoyed
great esteem in society. The different sections of society cooperated with each
other for common purposes. Women were also held in great honour and given a lot
of freedom. They were also imparted education in different branches of
learning, specially fine arts. The labourers and the peasants formed the
working class. But they were very poor. The Shudras were treated as
untouchables.
RELIGION
Mostly, the people followed
Hinduism and worshipped the Hindu gods. Other religions like Buddhism and
Jainism also existed. Christianity and Islam were also gaining followers. A
number of religious movements started during this period. Alvar and Nayanar
saints continued to popularize their own sects. The Alvars popularized
devotional songs of Vaishnavism while Nayanars sang hymns in praise of Siva. The
Lingayat was the most popular of the religious sects.
Some great religious teachers
also lived during this period. The best known among them were Shankaracharya
and Ramanuja.
There were also two famous
centres of Buddhist learning at Nagapatnam and Kanchi. Both Jainism and
Buddhism had become very popular because of royal patronage. Some rulers also
patronized Islam and Christianity. Various Christian and Muslim communities
settled in various parts of South India.
THE
CHOLA TEMPLES: CENTRE OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
In
the field of education and literature too, the Cholas made great progress. They encouraged the study
of grammar, astronomy, philosophy, art and various sciences. The schools were
held in the courtyards of the temples. Each temple had an attached matha which
helped to provide free education. The mathas could accommodate about 400-500
students at a time. Besides, the temples were also centres of cultural activities
like music, dance, drama, fairs, exhibitions and festivals. These activities
are still continuing in temple premises in South India.
LITERARY ACTIVITY/ LITERATURE UNDER THE CHOLAS
This period also saw much literary activity in South
India. Sanskrit and Tamil became the chief media of expression. A lot of
literature was created in the Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. Many literary
and religious works from Sanskrit were translated into these languages and they
became very popular among the people. The Ramayana of Kamban in Tamil is one
such example. Telugu writers like Nanniah and Tikkana immortalised their names
by their excellent adaptations of the Mahabharata. These epics provide valuable
information about South India history of this and earlier periods. The Lingayat
teachers preached in Kannada. Poets like Pampa, Ponna and Ranna also wrote much
in Kannada language.
Comments
Post a Comment