POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHOLAS

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH INDIA: A CASE STUDY OF THE CHOLAS

The Chola power started emerging in South India from around 8^th century A.D. Vijayala (846-871) established his rule in the Tamil land with Tanjore as his capital in about A.D. 846. He is regarded as the founder of imperial Cholas. His grandson Parantaka I (A.D. 907-955) established kings of Madurai and extended his territory further south. He took the title of Madurakiondavan – the conqueror of Madurai.

Rajaraja I (A.D. 985-1016): with the accession of Rajaraja I, the Chola empire withessed a glorious period in its history. He extended his empire both in the North and in the South. He defeated the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Vengis. He took some territories of Mysore, Travancore, Coorg and Sri Lanka as well. He built a powerful navy and controlled many islands of the sea like the Lakshadweep and Maldives. Under him, the Cholas became a paramount power in the South.

Rajaraja I was a great builder. He constructed the beautiful Brihadesvara Temple of Shiva at Tanjore. On the walls of this temple are inscribed the chief exploites of Rajaraja I.

Trade flourished in many islands. The coasts of Kerala, Maldives and Sri Lanka became rich. Textiles, spices and precious stones were exported to West Asia. Arab merchants dealt in trade. Some of them settled in the Chola empire.

Rajendra Chola (A.D. 1016- 1044): Rajendra succeeded his father Rajaraja I and carried on the aggressive policy. He conquered the whole of Sri Lanka. It was made a province of Chola empire and named Mummadi Cholamandalam. He then overran the Chalukyas of Vengi. He carried his arms right up to Central India and made the ruler of Gondwana acknowledge his supremacy. He then overran the whole of Orissa and Bengal right up to the southern banks of the Ganga. In memory of this exploit, he took the title of Gangaikonda. He then annexed the islands of Lakshadweep and Maladweep. He also humbled the Sri Vijaya kingdom which included the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Shailendra kings later built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatnam. Rajendra I, on his part, endowed the income of the village for its upkeep. The naval supremacy helped him to build a vast maritime empire to control trade and commerce. With this vast expansion in territories, trade flourished to a great extent. Indian ships began to sail through the Straits of Malacca. This increased the revenue of the Chola kingdom. He built a new capital, known as Gangaikonda Cholapuram near the mouth of the river Kaveri. He built magnificent palaces and beautiful temples there. He also conquered Java and some other eastern islands. The emissaries were also sent to China.

The successor of Rajendra I continued the war-like policy but gradually they became weak. There were revolts in various quarters and many independent states were set up. In A.D. 1267, the Pandya ruler Jalavarman Sundara defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra II, and annexed a great part of his kingdom. The Hoysalas of the Dvarasamudra (Mysore) also annexed a part of Chola kingdom.

Causes of conflict between the Chola and the Kingdom of Sri Vijaya: The Cholas, especially their ruler Rajendra Chola, had to fight against the kingdom of Sri Vijaya, which comprised the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, due to various causes. The Indian merchants earned a lot of money because of their trade with the South-East Asian countries and China. Their ships passed through the Straits of Malacca which was held by the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. When this kingdom tried to create difficulties for the Indian merchants, the Chola kings had to intervence. In addition, most of these merchants belonged to the Chola kingdom and naturally the Chola rulers had to take their side. The Chola rulers also earned a lot of revenue from this trade; so for economic reasons, too, the Chola rulers had to intervene. The Chola rulers possessed a strong navy; so they readily sent a naval expendition against the kingdom of Sri Vijaya and defeated his forces.

THE CHOLA GOVERNMENT (OR ADMINISTRATION) AND ITS CHIEF FEATURES

The system of the Chola Administration was highly organized and efficient. The king was the head of the Central Government. He was all powerful but he acted upon the advice of his Council of ministers in government affairs. His chief duty was to look after the welfare of the people. He personally went on tours. The government business was carried on by the assemblies, elected by the people. There were four very important assemblies.

The Chola rulers also organized their Provincial Governments on sound footing. They divided their empire into six provinces called Mandalams. Each Mandalam was divided into a number of Valanadus or districts. Each Valanadu contained a certain number of villages. The village was the smallest unit of the Chola administration which was governed by a Sabha. Each Mandalam was put under the charge of a governor.

The Village Administration of the Chola was also appreciable. The villages were the main centres of administrative and cultural life in South India. The administration in the villages was carried on by the village assemblies which were of three types and worked like local self-governments. The three types of village assemblies were Ur, Sabha or Mahasabha and the Nagram. The Ur was the assembly of common villagers and the Sabha of learned Brahamins. The Nagram was the assembly of traders, merchants and artisans. The landloeds of the upper cates were chosen by lots, to the Sabhas. These village councils enjoyed great powers in the field of justice also.

The Cholas had a powerful army of foot-soldiers, archers, horsemen, elephant corps and a naval fleet. Navy was the most powerful wing of the army which was used for keeping control over the islands and for maintaining commercial relations with distant lands over the sea. The Uttaramerur temple inscription throws a great deal of light on Chola village administration.

SOCIETY

The Brahmanas and the merchants were the most respectable sections of the Chola society. The traders and artisans enjoyed great esteem in society. The different sections of society cooperated with each other for common purposes. Women were also held in great honour and given a lot of freedom. They were also imparted education in different branches of learning, specially fine arts. The labourers and the peasants formed the working class. But they were very poor. The Shudras were treated as untouchables.

RELIGION

Mostly, the people followed Hinduism and worshipped the Hindu gods. Other religions like Buddhism and Jainism also existed. Christianity and Islam were also gaining followers. A number of religious movements started during this period. Alvar and Nayanar saints continued to popularize their own sects. The Alvars popularized devotional songs of Vaishnavism while Nayanars sang hymns in praise of Siva. The Lingayat was the most popular of the religious sects.

Some great religious teachers also lived during this period. The best known among them were Shankaracharya and Ramanuja.

There were also two famous centres of Buddhist learning at Nagapatnam and Kanchi. Both Jainism and Buddhism had become very popular because of royal patronage. Some rulers also patronized Islam and Christianity. Various Christian and Muslim communities settled in various parts of South India.

THE CHOLA TEMPLES: CENTRE OF EDUCATION, CULTURE AND SOCIAL ACTIVITIES

In the field of education and literature too, the Cholas made great progress. They encouraged the study of grammar, astronomy, philosophy, art and various sciences. The schools were held in the courtyards of the temples. Each temple had an attached matha which helped to provide free education. The mathas could accommodate about 400-500 students at a time. Besides, the temples were also centres of cultural activities like music, dance, drama, fairs, exhibitions and festivals. These activities are still continuing in temple premises in South India.

LITERARY ACTIVITY/ LITERATURE UNDER THE CHOLAS

This period also saw much literary activity in South India. Sanskrit and Tamil became the chief media of expression. A lot of literature was created in the Tamil, Telugu and Kannada languages. Many literary and religious works from Sanskrit were translated into these languages and they became very popular among the people. The Ramayana of Kamban in Tamil is one such example. Telugu writers like Nanniah and Tikkana immortalised their names by their excellent adaptations of the Mahabharata. These epics provide valuable information about South India history of this and earlier periods. The Lingayat teachers preached in Kannada. Poets like Pampa, Ponna and Ranna also wrote much in Kannada language.