FARMERS AND
HERDERS IN INDIA
The period from around 8000 to
4000 BCE is known as the Neolithic Age. During this period, humans changed from
hunters and gatherers to farmers and herders.
Around 8000 BC, the ice which
had covered large parts of the Earth during the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
Ages started to melt. The warmer climate encouraged the spread of plants and
animals to previously cold regions. People learnt to grow crops of grains, and
vegetables. This resulted in the development of agriculture. People also
started taming animals as they realized how useful they were.
Neolithic settlements have been
found in several regions of South Asia. Among the excavated sites, the main
ones are at Mehrgarh in Pakistan, Burzahom in Kashmir, Daojali Hading and
Sarutaru in Assam,Chirand in Bihar, Kuchai in Odisha, Daimabad and Inamgaon in
Maharashtra, Brahmagiri in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and
Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
AGRICULTURE
After centuries of practicing food gathering, humans
learnt to plant their own crops and plan their harvests. They learnt to select
the best quality seeds. Wheat, barley, millet and pulses were cultivated.
Humans learnt to plough the land before planting seeds. Ploughing broke up the
hard soil and cut a straight line in the ground in which the framer could sow
the seeds. Due to these improvements in agricultural practices, there was an
explosion in agriculture output.
This agricultural revolution brought about many
changes and improvements in the way people lived. More food could now be
produced than was required for the people. This led to methods of saving for
the future. Food could be stored till the next harvest. After each crop was
harvested, the fields were cleared for the next season by burning the fields.
Ash mounds as well as habitation sites have been discovered in Brahmagiri and
Hallur in Karnataka and Paiyamapalli in Tamil Nadu.
DOMESTICATION AND HERDING OF ANIMALS
During the Neolithic period, humans started domesticating
animals. Remains of animal bones and shelters found at Neolithic sites tell us
what kinds of animals were domesticated. Bones of sheep and goats have been
excavated at Tekkalakota in Karnataka, and in settlements to the south of the
river Godavari. The farmers of Piklihal, in Karnataka, were cattle herders.
They set up cow pens and also collected dung. With the domestication of animals
like oxen, pigs, and sheep, there was a regular supply of meat. Gats also gave milk. Some of the
animals like horses, oxen and bulls could be used to plough the land.
Thus, Neolithic humans became herders. Herding is the
management of domesticated animals. The animals domesticated by the humans
needed to be fed and kept safe. The animals often needed to be moved from place
to place in search of flesh pasture or grass.
SETTLEMENTS
Settled community living was another result of
agriculture. Settled life would also have needed a leader and someone to maintain
law and order. This period probably saw the beginning of division of labour. Some
people would have made tools, some would have taken the animals for grazing, and
some would have been involved in agriculture. The population increased rapidly
because large quantities of food were available, and the agricultural
revolution provided the means for a secure life in the future.
Neolithic people buried their dead. Objects used by
the dead persons, like tools, weapons and pottery, were buried with them. In many
parts of South India, burial places have been marked with huge rectangular
blocks of stone. They are called megaliths (‘mega’ means ‘large’ in Greek).
As the needs of agriculture demanded settlement in one
place, people constructed huts of dried grass and mud as shelter. Huts were
huddled together as if in a colony. Most settlements were on the slopes of
hills or in rock shelters near rivers and streams.
The homes of Neolithic framers were much larger and
sturdier than the skin –covered huts of their Mesolithic ancestors. Some of
them were built of spilt logs. Walls were sometimes woven from smaller
branches. Some people even started
living in brick houses. The earliest Neolithic settlements are in the valleys
of Iran and Iraq, and in Israel and Palestine.
TOOLS
With farming as an activity growing in importance,
there was a demand for better and more effective tools. Sickles and reaping
knives were developed to harvest crops. Heavy tools were used for digging and leveling
the land. Grinding stones were invented for processing cereals and other plant
food. Stone axes were used to cut down trees and mattocks to break up the soil.
Stone was ground and polished into sharper and more refined implements. The
wooden plough was invented during this period.
POTTERY
Pots were needed for storing excess grain and milk and
water. During the Neolithic Age, humans learnt to make vessels of clay and bake
the on fire. Pots were also used for cooking and eating. Neolithic pottery in
northern India was black-grey ware, with a matt (not shiny) finish.
INVENTION OF THE AXLE
One
of the greatest inventions of the Neolithic humans was the wheel with an axle. An
axle is a shaft on which the wheel rotates. The invention of the axle allowed
the wheel to turn freely. It had various uses.
The
potter’s wheel was used to work clay to make better pots.
Heavy
objects could be transported on wheels.
It improved
transport and quickened the pace of development.
Possibly,
the wheel was used to spin cotton thread which could then be woven into cloth.
The
oldest surviving wheel has been found in Mesopotamia in Iraq. It is believed to
be over 5000 years old.
RELIGION
Not
much is known about the religion of the early humans. They must have been awed
by nature and its mysteries. Probably, nature was worshipped in different
forms. The cave paintings of Old Stone Age hunters may have had a magical or
religious significance. Several statues and figurines of mother goddesses have
been found at Neolithic sites, suggesting the prevalence of goddess-worship. Over
a period of time the dead and their worship assumed importance.
ORNAMENTS
People made ornaments of conch shells, lapis lazuli and
turquoise beads. Remains of necklaces, bracelets and earrings have been found
from Neolithic sites.
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